Bibliography

Secondary Sources:

Beard, Mary. (2007) The Roman Triumph. First Harvard University Press.

Mary Beard’s The Roman Triumh paints a vivid picture of exactly what a triumph would entail.  She details just how violent these triumphs could be, with the captives being put to death at the end. She goes on to say how this was an exercise by the Roman Empire to show its clout. It is difficult to argue with that point; the descriptions of the triumphs by Pliny are nothing short of amazing in terms of the brutality and the spoils that were put on display. The main point of Beard’s writing is to show the importance of the triumph as a representation of Rome’s power over conquered peoples.

Varhelyi, Zsuzsanna. (2007) The Specters of Roman Imperialism: The Live Burials of Gauls and Greeks at Rome. Classical Antiquity, Vol. 26, No. 2.

This article is an examination of live burials performed under Roman Imperialism.  The author interprets human sacrifice of Gauls and Greeks in Rome as showing how little we know of the psychological effects of continuous warfare on the Romans. She argues for the connection between warfare and religion that does not support the idea of defensive Roman imperialism. That is, that Rome had to go to war to protect her own interests.

Hanson, Victor. (2010) The Father of Us All: War and History, Ancient and Modern. Bloomsbury Press.

This book examines the principles of the Roman military and what values they held. This is important to examine because these were the people often in charge of occupying the Roman held lands. It also examines the similarities of the Roman military to that of ours today. What he finds is quite striking. He claims that the strength of these militaries comes from the egalitarian nature from which they are founded. He also looks at how Rome and America today use their military to control the foreign people and lands.

Mattingly, David. (2006) An Imperial Possession Britain in the Roman Empire. Penguin Books.

Mattingly examines the sweeping history of the Roman rule of Britain. This book examines the lives of the people that lived in Britain during this period including the experiences of the Roman military leaders and the conquered natives.  There are no large surviving Roman works that specifically deal Britain, thus this excursion is rather difficult. Mattingly draws upon archeological evidence and inscriptions to further support historical information.

James, Lawrence. (1997) Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India. St. Martin’s Griffin.

This book takes a wide perspective examination on a key component of both British and Indian history. He deals with matters as diverse as racial attitudes, the part played by the Raj in Britain's position in the nineteenth century world, and the rise of Indian nationalism.  The focus was on the development of an Indian identity under British rule.

Edwards, Douglass. (2004) Religion and society in Roman Palestine: old questions, new approaches. Routledge.

This is a collection of papers that examines important archaeological and textual evidence concerning religion and society in Roman Palestine. Some of the topics covered include: the impact of Roman rule, the role of peasants, the nature of ethnicity and ritual, and the character of public and private space in Jewish society.

Poesche, Theodore. Goepp, Charles. (1853). The new Rome; or, The United States of the world. GP Putnam.

An interesting read that intends to be “a horoscope” for future events.  This book purports a few key events: the reuniting of the United States and the British Empire, the conquest of Germany and Russia, and the eventual rise of the United States as “Empire of the World” through capitalism.

Judd, Denis. (2005) The lion and the tiger: the rise and fall of the British Raj, 1600-1947. Oxford University Press.

This is an overarching examination of the history of the British Raj. Judd focuses on the British impact in the development of India and the consequences of British rule for both rulers and ruled.  Aspects discussed include: the first contacts between East and West, the foundation of the East India Company in 1600, and Gandhi's tactics to overthrow the Raj and restore India to the Indians.

Primary Sources

Julius Caesar. Commentaries on the Gallic Wars.

This is a third-person narrative on the Roman conquest of the people of Gaul.  Although the description of the Roman Empire is most likely skewed, this work provides an important insight into the manner that Rome dealt with its enemies and how it treated conquered lands.

Flavius Josephus. Books of the History of the Jewish War against the Romans.

Josephus describes the Jewish rebellion against Rome between AD 66 and 70.  Josephus remains controversial as an author today because he was originally a Jewish rebel who defected to Roman rule after he was captured. 

Tacitus. Agricola.

Tacitus is one of the most critical primary authors that writes about the Roman Empire. In this work he praises the accomplishments of his father-in-law Agricola, who at the time was the governor and commander of the army in Britain while contrasting it to the corruption in Rome.  Tacitus also favorably contrasts the liberty of the native Britons to the corruption and tyranny of the Empire.

Bibliography

Primary:

Josephus, F. (n.d.). The Jewish War.

                In this text, Josephus gives us a detailed description of the events leading up to the Jewish War of 66-73 CE and those of the war itself. Including the period beginning with the capture of Jerusalem by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes (in 164 BC), and up to the fall and destruction of Jerusalem. The causes of this war are a great example of the greed involved in Roman imperialism as the Romans had been taxing the Jews for 60 years before the Roman emperor Nero needed money and demanded Gessius Florus (a representative in Judaea) to confiscate it from the Temple treasure. This and underlying class divisions contributed the most to the actual cause of the war. Josephus as both a general (elected by temple authorities) and a historian looking with hindsight gives an account of the causes of the war, events of the war, and the horrific destruction of Jerusalem.

Livius, T. (n.d.). Chapter 6. In T. Livius, The History of Rome, Book 31.

                Livy’s “History of Rome” gives an exhaustive account of Roman history. Livy writes about various aspects of Roman history and culture such as arguments in the senate concerning issues like extending a commanders term or granting a triumph. This chapter takes a closer look at the assembly’s authority in declaring war and Livy gives only one account of the assembly raising objections (during the 2nd Macedonian War). The tribune Q. Baebius convinces the people to reject the proposal for war, but the consul then convinces the assembly to reverse their decision soon after. This helps display how factors such as politics complicated the process of war and how Roman imperialism was not as simple as following an aggressive or defensive strategy. 

Cicero, M. T. (n.d.). Secondary Orations Against Verres. In Book 4.

                Cicero takes a unique approach to his first case and spends much of his time convincing his audience of Verrus’ “evil” nature, but also tries to make him look ridiculous. Cicero begins by reviewing Verrus’ history before being named governor of Sicily, avoiding the main charges of extortion against him. Cicero focuses much of his attention on the theft of statues, paintings, and other art. Though odd at the time, this gives us the basis for ethical acquisition of art and what should be considered unethical.

Secondary:

Harris, W. (1979). War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327-70 B.C. OUP Oxford.

                Harris shatters the conventional image of Roman imperialism being defensive in nature. He suggests a theory of “aggressive imperialism” and makes the argument “that the most important of the factors which brought about the wars was the Romans’ desire for the glory and economic benefits which successful warfare conferred.”

Malamud, M. (2009). Imperial Consumption. In M. Malamud, Ancient Rome and Modern America (pp. 229-252). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.            
          
                  An interesting article on the comparison and relation of the imperial consumption found in ancient Rome and the comsumption of modern america. In particular, Malamud examines the consumption exhibited in Las Vegas by the casinos.

Perkins, J. (2004). Confessions of an Economic Hit Man. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

                Perkins describes the imperialistic strategy of our nation in the modern world along with his personal experience carrying out our country's missions of conquest. In the book, Perkins describes how we use debt to conquer nations and force them into acting in our best interest. The underlying mechanics of the strategy work by us first identifying a nation of interest (with desired resources for instance), then a loan to the nation (typically from the World Bank etc. and these are very large loans), the large loans will end up going to an american corporation to develop infrastructure etc., the nation clearly cannot pay off the loan and is then forced to accept terms such as access/rights to resources we desire. This presents an interesting contrast between Roman imperialism based upon greed and glory and the modern form of imperialism with greed at its heart (but taking a more subtle form).

Rich, J. (2004). Fear, Greed, and Glory. In C. B. Champion, Roman imperialism: readings and sources (pp. 46-62). Blackwell Publishing.

                Rich takes a look at the applicability of roman imperialism theories, including a defensive theory and an aggressive theory (as presented by William Harris). Roman society was thought to be a militaristic culture which valued military achievements and was geared towards fighting wars continuously to maintain the flow of opportunities and profits that result from war. War generated a cheap supply of slaves, slaves which transformed Italian agriculture. In addition, one of the main benefits ordinary Romans received as a result of war was land. Although Harris’ categorization of Roman imperialism as “aggressive imperialism” is more intuitive than the previously held notion of “defensive imperialism”, the assumption of constant warfare and expansion is inaccurate. In all reality, Roman conquest was irregular and not constant by any means. Many expansive opportunities were passed up and in many cases warfare was avoided all together.

Woolf, G. (1992, February). Imperialism, Empire and the Integration of the Roman Economy. World Archaeology, 23, 283-293.

                This article explores the relationship between Roman imperialism and the Roman economy. The two main arguments provided are that of a locally/regionally based economy and a completely integrated economy in which politics were important. Support for the notion of an integrated Roman economy can found in evidence of wide spread trade throughout the empire. Looking at the remains of trade such as the amphorae (a ceramic jar commonly used by Romans to store goods like wine and olive oil), the extent of Roman trade and the rate of trade throughout different periods of the Roman Empire are explored.  The basic conclusion reached by the article is that while trade within the empire rarely took an integrated form above the regional level, the integration of trade throughout the empire during the last two centuries BC was created not by the infrastructure of a staple Roman Empire but by the imperial expansion at the time.

(2009). The Pleasures of Empire. In M. Malamud, Ancient Rome and Modern America (pp. 150-185). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Hazewell, C. C. (1857, November). British India. The Atlantic Monthly, 1, pp. 85-93.

                This article is a juxtaposition of the Roman Empire and the British Empire, specifically British ruled India. The scale of the British Empire outweighs that of the Roman Empire, a fact that is not well-known. While both empires differ greatly, they share the resemblance of conquering a multitude of divided nations who failed to unite against them.

(2008). Conquests and Glories, Triumphs and Spoils: Caesar and the Edeology of Roman Imperialism. In W. J. Tatum, Always I Am Caesar (pp. 42-60). Wiley-Blackwell.

                Caesar represents the height of Roman greed and Conquest, giving us an example of how greed played a role Roman culture and how it helped to fuel countless Roman conquests. Rome can easily be identified as an imperialistic state, but Rome was the result of a grand transformation with a humble beginning in a small village along the Tibur. Much of this is due to Roman imperialism which was at the heart of Roman ideology.

Other:

Apted, M. (Director). (2005). "The Stolen Eagle" Rome (HBO Series) [Motion Picture].

Tykwer, T. (Director). (2009). The International [Motion Picture].

Lendering, J. (n.d.). Wars between the Jews and Romans: the subjugation of Judaea (63 BCE). Retrieved March 2011, from Livius: http://www.livius.org/ja-jn/jewish_wars/jwar01.htm

               

Bibloigraphy for Just War Theory

1. Isaac, B. (2004). The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
a. Secondary
b. This book touches on how racism was used in the ancient world. There is one section in the book that talks about how ancient peoples were discriminated against based on race by dehumanizing them. The dehumanization of the enemy is also an important part of fighting an enemy in a just war. I used this book in my comment on the ancient slavery blog
2. White, C. M. (2010). Iraq: The Moral Reckoning. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
a. Secondary
b. This book talks about ancient just war theory in a modern context. It focuses on how the ancient just war theory was used on the American public while the federal government was justifying the Iraq War. This was used in my midterm post.
3. Jones, J. D., & Griesbach, M. F. (Eds.). (1985). Just War Theory in the Nuclear Age. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
a. Secondary
b. This book explores an interesting area of modern just war theory. It proposes that there is a new just war theory due to the fact that we are living in a “nuclear age.” President Obama’s Nobel Peace Prize winning speech also makes note of just war theory in a time when the stakes of war are so much higher than they have been in the past due to nuclear weapons.
4. Fiala, A. (2008). The Just War Myth. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
a. Secondary
b. This book asserts that there is no such thing as a “just war.” The ancient accepted war as a natural part of life. This book, on the other hand, says that there is no real way to apply just war theory and that war is inherently unjust.
5. Fotion, N. (2007). War & Ethics: A New Just War Theory. New York, NY: Continuum.
a. Secondary
b. Fotion goes through how just war theory was applied to a variety of wars and military conflicts in the twentieth century. This source was used in my midterm post.
6. Bethke Elshtain, J. (Ed.). (1992). Just War Theory. New York, NY: New York University Press.
a. Secondary
b. This book by a variety of authors goes through the entire history of just war theory from antiquity to how it can be applied in the nuclear age.
7. Evans, M. (Ed.). (2005). Just War Theory: A Reappraisal. Edinburgh, Great Britain: Edinburgh University Press.
a. Secondary
b. Various authors go into detail about the just causes of war and the just practice of war. This book explores the two sides of justice war theory. Justice in going to war, and the actual practice of a just war.
8. De Officiis by Cicero
a. Primary
9. City of God by St. Augustine
a. Primary
10. Summa Theologica by St. Thomas Aquinas
a. Primary
11. Politics by Aristotle
a. Primary
12. History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides
a. Primary

Genocide Bibliography

1)War and Imperialism in Republican Rome by Harris
In this work he describes the struggle between Rome and Carthage the main genocide that I have been studying in the ancient world. In this he tell how this was one powerful state looking to decimate another state. He tells how this Carthage did not really bring this war upon themselves but instead had it thrust onto them by Rome. He goes into length how Rome would find any excuse they could muster to get this war started. They blamed in on a skirmish they had with Roman allies in North Africa and the fact that they were experienced a very prosperous time in their history. This infuriated the Romans because they though themselves to be far superior and they therefore attacked and eventually destroyed Carthage.

2)The Worlds Bloodies History: Massacre, Genocide, and the Scars Left on Civilization By Joseph Cumming
This book goes into even greater detail of this genocide. He first gives another reason for the attack on Carthage. He gives proof of the child sacrifices that the Carthaginians had been performing. This was against the Roman way of life and therefore was another reason they wanted to destroy Carthage. He also tells of how the Carthaginian people did all they could to try to avoid this war from coming upon them. They gave up 300 of their most noble youth and sent them to Rome. They also gave every weapon that they had to the Romans in hope that they would not attack. However, this did not stop the Romans and when they did attack the Carthaginians had to scramble to make new weapons.

3)Carthage Must Be Destroyed: The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization by Richard Miles
In this book he describes how before the Roman destruction, Carthage was experiencing one of the most prosperous times in their history. One reason for this may have been the fact that they no longer had a standing army that they had to finance and keep, since part of the treaty at the end of the Second Punic War had made it so that they could not have an army. During this time they had used their location on the Mediterranean Sea to continue their high levels of commerce. So even though they had to pay taxes to Rome, another part of the treaty, they were still able to maintain a high level of success in their other facets of life.

4)History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides
He describes the Athenian genocide of the island nation of Melos. This is called the Melian Dialogue. In this passage it is the Athenian envoy telling the leader of Melos that they need to either surrender to Athens and become part of its empire or it will be destroyed. In the end the Melian leaders decide that it is better to die free then to live as part of the Athenian state. After they decide this they are then destroyed by Athens and the remaining people sold into slavery. This shows how this was another genocide committed in the ancient world. It was interesting in this text about how the leaders of Melos were given a choice and they basically chose genocide, which the Athenians then brought down upon them.

5)Appian's History
The part of Appian's History related to genocide describing the conflict between Rome and Carthage. His text really gets into the heart of the conflict. It describes in detail the Roman advance into the Carthaginian city and their complete destruction of its people. There is one passage that describes the brutality of the genocide that was taking place. It tells how the Romans were just running through the street slaughtering every man, woman, and child in their path. Then it describes how they level all the building, many of them with people still inside and how in the rubble there were limbs sticking out all over the place. His description of the genocide is very in depth and thorough.

6)The Jewish War By Flavius Josephus
This text was useful to describe many attacks on the Jewish people. It detailed some genocides like the attack and mass suicide on Masada. He goes into great detail on these subjects and give a firsthand look at these wars and each side.

7)Periochae 48-50 by Livy
This is a text describing the Third Punic War. This is the attack by Rome on Carthage. He goes through what let up to and how the conflict went. He gives very good detail about the genocide and this work give us another inside look into this genocide.

8)The Third Punic War, 149-146 BCE [The Histories, Book XXXVI-XXXIX] by Polybius
This is another look inside the Carthage genocide. This gives a strong view from the Carthaginian side before they are wiped off of the face of the earth. Goes into the decisions that were made prior to the war and then what happened. Again gives a good look at this genocide.